Description
Skeletal System
Skeletal Anatomy
bones, cartilage and ligaments are tightly joined to
form a strong, flexible framework each individual bone is a separate organ of the
skeletal system
bone is active tissue:
!5-7% bone mass/week ~270 bones (organs) of the Skeletal System
Functions of Skeletal System: with age the number decreases as bones fuse
1. Support by adulthood the number is 206 (typical)
strong and relatively light; 20% body weight
2. Movement even this number varies due to varying numbers
framework on which muscles act of minor bones:
act as levers and pivots
sesamoid bones – small rounded bones that form within
3. Protection tendons in response to stress
brain, lungs, heart, reproductive system
eg. kneecap (patella), in knuckles
4. Mineral storage (electrolyte balance
99% of body’s calcium is in bone tissue wormian bones –bones that form within the sutures of
(1200-1400g vs <1.5g in blood, rest in cells) skull
also stores phosphate
each skeletal organ is composed of many kinds of
5. Hemopoiesis tissues:
blood cell formation
bone (=osseous tissue)
6. Detoxification cartilage
bone tissue removes heavy metals and other foreign materials fibrous connective tissues
from blood blood (in blood vessels)
can later release these materials more slowly for excretion nervous tissue
but this can also have bad consequences
General Shapes of Bones
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bones can be categorized according to their general the general structure of a typical longbone:
shape:
1. long: cylindrical, longer than wide
articular cartilage
rigid levers for muscle actions eg crowbars epiphysis
periosteum
eg. arms, legs, fingers, toes
medullary cavity diaphysis
2. short: length nearly equal width
endosteum
limited motion, gliding if any
epiphysis
eg. carpals, tarsals, patella
3. flat: thin sheets of bone tissue
epiphyses
enclose and protect organs
large surface area for muscle attachment and pivot
broad surfaces for muscle attachments spongy bone with trabeculae;
eg. sternum, ribs, most skull bones, scapula, os coxa contains red marrow (=hemopoietic tissues)
4. irregular: elaborate shapes different from above ! produces blood cells in delicate mesh of reticular
tissues
eg. vertebrae, sphenoid, ethmoid
in adults red marrow is limited to vertebrae, sternum,
ribs, pectoral and pelvic girdles, proximal heads of
Bone Structure humerus and femur
bones have outer shell of compact bone with age, red marrow is replaced by yellow marrow
usually encloses more loosely organized bone tissue articular cartilage
= spongy (=cancellous) bone on surface of epiphyses
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resilient cushion of hyaline cartilage highly organized arrangement of matrix and
cells
diaphysis
lacunae w osteocyte
thick compact bone but light; hollow ! medullary cavity & canaliculi
medullary cavity lamellae
haversian canal
yellow marrow – fat (adipose) storage
“fat at the center of a ham bone” perforating canals (Volkmann canals)
interconnect the haversian canals
in event of severe anemia, yellow marrow can
transform back into red marrow to make blood cells
periosteum provides life support system for
periosteum bone cells
white fibrous connective tissue continuous with tendons
penetrates bone – welds blood vessels to bone blood vessels penetrate bone and connect with
those in haversian canals
endosteum
fibrous CT that lines medullary cavity B. cartilage
Microscopic Structure (Histology) resembles bone:
large amount of matrix
A. bone:
lots of collagen fibers
connective tissue; contains cells and matrix
differs:
firm flexible gel is not calcified (hardened)
bone cells = osteocytes
no haversian canal system
no direct blood supply
matrix predominates; ~ 1/3rd organic and ! nutrients and O2 by diffusion
2/3rd’s inorganic
all bone starts out as cartilage
matrix contains lots of collagen fibers
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in bone the matrix is hardened (= ossified) by Anatomy of Skeletal System
calcification (or mineralization)
microscopic structure of cartilage: Bone Markings: any bump, hole, ridge, etc on each
bone; eg.:
chondrocytes in lacunae
Foramen: opening in bone – passageway for nerves and blood
vessels
kinds of cartilage:
(all similar matrix with lots of collagen Fossa: shallow depression – eg a socket into which another bone
articulates
fibers; differ in other fibers)
Sinus: internal cavity in a bone
1. hyaline
most common Condyle: rounded bump that articulates with another bone
eg. covers articular surfaces of joints, costal cartilage
of ribs, rings of tracheae, nose Tuberosity: large rough bump – point of attachment for muscle
Spine: sharp slender process
2. fibrous
mostly collagen fibers
eg. discs between vertebrae, pubic symphysis two main subdivisions of skeletal system:
3. elastic axial : skull, vertebral column, rib cage
also has elastic fibers
eg. external ear, eustacean tube
appendicular: arms and legs and girdles
The Axial Skeleton
A. Skull
most complex part of the skeleton
consists of facial and cranial bones
most bones are paired, not all
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in 4 of the bones making up the face
bones joined at sutures
in life lined with mucous membrane to form sinuses
1. Fontanels lighten bone, warm and moisten air
ossification of skull begins in about 3rd month of 6 sinuses:
fetal development frontal -2
maxillary -2
ethmoid -1
not completed at birth!bones have not yet fused sphenoid -1
gaps = fontanels Examples of Paired Skull Bones:
frontal (anterior)
occipital (posterior)
5. Maxilla
2 sphenoid
2 mastoid
cheek bones, upper teeth cemented to these bones
at this stage skull is covered by tough membrane for protection
hard palate: palatine process and palatine bones
normally, bones grow together and fuse to form solid case around
brain cleft palate ! when bones of palatine process of maxilla
bones do not fuse properly
3. Skull Cavities
not only cosmetic effect
can lead to serious respiratory and feeding problems in
inside of skull contains several significant cavities: babies and small children
today, fairly easily corrected
cranial cavity – largest (adult – 1,300 ml); part of dorsal
body cavity
orbits – eye sockets 6. Temporal Bone
nasal cavity external auditory meatus - opening to ear canal
leads to middle ear chamber
buccal cavity
ear ossicles:
middle and inner ear cavities
malleus = hammer
4. Paranasal Sinuses incus = anvil
stapes = stirrup
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7. Mandible = lower jaw very delicate and easily damaged by sharp upward blow to the
nose
largest, strongest bone of face
articulates at temporal bone can drive bone fragments through the cribriform plate
into the meninges or brain itself
Examples of Unpaired Skull Bones: can also shear off olfactory nerves! loses of smell
8. occipital bone 11. hyoid bone – single “U” shaped bone in neck just below
mandible
foramen magnum - large opening in base
through which spinal cord passes suspended from styloid process of temporal bone
occipital condyles - articulation of vertebral column only major bone in body that doesn’t directly articulate with
other bones
9. sphenoid bone – irregular, unpaired bone
serves as point of attachment for tongue and several other
muscles
resembles bat or butterfly;
“keystone” in floor of cranium B. Vertebral Column
! anchors many of the bones of cranium
main axis of body
contains sinuses
flexible rather than rigid
sella turcica – depression for the pituitary gland
permits foreward, backward, and some sideways
10. ethmoid – irregular, unpaired bone
movement
honeycomed with sinuses
divided into 5 regions:
cribiform plate – perforated with openings which cervical
allow olfactory nerves to pass thoracic
lumbar
nasal conchae – passageways for air; filtering, sacral
warming, moistening coccygeal
crista galli – attachment of meninges
all but last two are similar in structure:
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body sacroiliac joint – lots of stress
spinous process
vertebral foramen
transverse process
Coccyx (4-5, some fused):
superior and inferior articular process
intervertebral foramen between each pair tailbone
separated by intervertebral discs
painful if broken
Cervical (7): sometimes blocks birth canal, must be broken
have transverse foramena
C. Ribcage
1s t and 2nd are highly modified for movement:
manubrium
atlas – holds head up sternum body (=gladiolus)
no body or spinous process xiphoid process
“yes” movement of head
ribs: most joined to sternum by costal cartilages
axis -- dens (odontoid process) – forms pivot
“no” movement
true ribs (7prs)
Thoracic (12): false ribs (5 prs)
include floating ribs (2prs)
distinguished by facets smooth areas for articulation of ribs
each rib articulates at two places
one on body of vertebrae
one on transverse process
Lumbar (5):
short and thick spinous processes
modified for attachment of powerful back muscles
Sacrum (5 fused):
triangular bone formed from fused vertebrae
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Appendicular Skeleton 3. Forearm:
very mobile; adds to flexibility of hand
A. Upper Extremeties
consists of two bones: radius & ulna
shoulder (=pectoral girdle)
upper and lower arm they are attached along their length by interosseous
membrane
wrist and hand
ulna:
1. Pectoral Girdle:
main forearm bone
firmly joined to humerous at elbow
scapula & clavicle large process = olecranon process, extends behind elbow
joint
only attached to trunk by 1 joint (between sternum and
clavicle) acts as lever for muscles that extends forearm
scapula is very moveable – acts as almost a 4th segment radius:
of limb
more moveable of two
scapula rides freely and is attached by muscles and can revolve around ulna to twist lower arm and hand
tendons to ribs but not by bone to bone joint
extensive flat areas of scapula are used as origins for 4. Hand:
arm muscles and trunk muscles
attached by muscles mainly to radius provides great flexibility
clavicle is the most frequently broken bone in the body,
sometimes even during birth large # of rounded bones (carpals) provide flexibility
carpals allow movement in all directions
2. Upper Arm:
metacarpals also rounded for flexibility
Humerus: longest and largest bone of arm
phalanges, not rounded, simple hinges for grasping
loosely articulates with scapula by head – glenoid cavity
large processes of scapula, acromium and coracoid
!have muscles which help to hold in place
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B. Lower Extremeties pubic symphysis: anterior joint of fibrous cartilage
in women before birth it softens to allow expansion of
number and arrangement of bones in the lower limb birth canal
are similar to those of the upper limb
as bipedal animals the pelvis must support most of the body
weight
in the lower limb they are adapted for weight
bearing and locomotion, not dexterity !viscera bear down on pelvic floor
! pelvis is funnel shaped; yet must remain large enough
pelvic girdle (pelvis, 2 coxal bones, sacrum, coccyx) for the birth canal
thigh
lower leg pelvis is easiest part of skeleton to distinguish between sexes
feet
2. Upper Leg = Thigh
1. Pelvic Girdle
made up of single bone = femur; largest bone in body
forms large basin of bone
head fits in large deep socket = acetabulum of pelvis
!receptacle for many internal organs
great strength, less flexibility than humerous
origin of thigh muscles and trunk muscles
rigid connection to axial skeleton; strength, not flexibility kneecap = patella;
large flaring portion = false pelvis a sesamoid bone = bones found where tension or pressure
exists; eg thumb and large toe
smaller actual opening = true pelvis
in tendons at knee joint; does not articulate directly with
!actual space child must fit through in women any other bone
pelvis consists of a pair of innominate bones (= os coxae) acts as kind of a bearing
that articulate with sacrum !allows tendon to slide smoothly across knee joint
each innominate is produced by fusion of three bones: if patella is lost through accident or injury get
~30% loss of mobility and strength due to > friction
ilium – upper, fan shaped
ischium – bottom 3. Lower Leg
pubis – front
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consists of two bones: tibia and fibula
tibia (=shinbone) Articulations
main bone, articulates with both femur and foot
Articulations = joints between bones
!more strength, less mobility
fibula hold bones together while usually allowing some
movement
small, offers extra support for lower leg and foot
can be classified by:
4. Foot
like hand, made of many bones 1. degree of movement
thick angular bones; must support all the weight of the body
2. structure of the joint
arches: strung with ligaments to provide double arches
= shock absorbers Degree of Movement
arches also furnish more supporting strength than any
other type of construction !more stability Synarthroses (=”joined together”, joint)
if ligaments and muscles weaken, arches are lost !immoveable
= flatfootedness = fallen arches,
! more difficult walking, foot pain, back pain Amphiarthroses (=on both sides, joint)
high heals redistribute the weight of foot!throw it !slightly moveable
foreward; ends of metatarsals bear most weight
!sore feet
Diarthroses (through a joining)
!freely moveable
Structure of the Joint
Fibrous Joints
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articular surface of both bones Examples of the 3 kinds of articulations
joined by fibrous connective tissue 1. Immoveable (Fibrous) Joints
eg. sutures
Cartilaginous Joints
– only in skull
articular surface joined by some kind of
cartilage (eg. fibrous or hyaline) eg. gomphoses
-teeth in socket
Synovial Joints
eg. syndesmoses
articulation is surrounded by joint capsule - fibrous bands between two bones
and synovial membrane
- distal tibiofibular joint
joint capsule
articular cartilage 2. Slightly Moveable (Cartilaginous)
joint cavity
synovial membrane eg. symphyses
synovial fluid
periosteum -fibrocartilage pad or disc
-midline of body
In general structure is correlated with function:
-symphysis pubis
therefore, three major kinds of joints:
-intervertebral discs
1. immoveable ~ fibrous eg. synchondroses
2. slightly moveable ~ cartilaginous -hyaline cartilage joins two bones
-epiphyseal discs; temporary
3. freely moveable ~ synovial
-costal cartilage between ribs and sternum
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3. Freely Moveable (Synovial) !slow to repair
most body articulations
tendons – specialized structures that attach
provide for many different kinds of motion: muscle to bone across joints
eg. uniaxial often enclosed by tendon sheath
hinge joint (fingers, toes, elbow)
ligaments – bind bones together across joints
pivot joints (head, radius at hand)
eg. biaxial more elastic than tendons
condyloid joints (metacarpals-phalanges hold joints in place
saddle joints (metacarpal-thumb)
limit their range of motion
eg. multiaxial
Bursa
gliding joint (carpals, tarsals)
ball and socket joints (shoulder, hip) synovial sacs spaced around joints between
tendons or ligaments
Includes tendons and ligaments
cushion ! reduce friction
both composed mainly of fibrous connective
tissue Exercise and Synovial Joints
synovial fluid is warmed by exercise and becomes thinner
consist of parallel strands of collagen fibers
!this is more easily absorbed by articular cartilage
continuous with periosteum and embedded in
!provides more effective cushion against compression
bone
this warmup and compression also helps to distribute nutrients
rarely break but tear away from bone to cartilage cells (nonvascular tissue) and squeeze out
metabolic wastes
when mature have few cells ! warm up is good for you
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Skeletal Physiology
Physiology of Bone
Composition of Bone
bone is active tissue:
bone is the densest tissue in the body
! only 20% water !5-7% bone mass/week
mature haversian canal systems are replaced up to 10x’s
bone has a grain just like wood: during a lifetime
grain runs longitudinally for greatest strength !equiv. of skeletal mass is replaced every 7 years
bone tissue consists of cells and matrix: most calcium in body is contained in teeth and skeleton
cells: =osteocytes ! acts as a mineral reservoir, esp for calcium, and
phosphate
cells that secrete the matrix
calcium is used in body for:
matrix:
muscle contractions
nerve impulses
2/3rd mineral salts (bone only) synapses
calcium & phosphorus heart beat
secretions
(CaPO4, CaOH, CaCO3)
blood clotting
also Mg, Na, K cofactors for enzymes
tends to accumulate metals:lead & radium a supply of calcium must be constantly available for all
! bone cancer, leukemia these activities
1/3rd collagen and proteins (cartilage and
blood calcium homeostasis is maintained by
bone)
dissolving or depositing bones via osteocytes
mixture of organic and inorganic components allow
cells = osteocytes ( in lacunae)
bone to be strong without being brittle
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two kinds of bone cells:
epiphyseal cartilage disappears when bone has
osteoblasts bone forming cells completed its growth (in length)
also works alongside osteoclasts to rework bone
Bone Maintenance and Remodeling
osteoclasts bone destroying cells
the skeletal system is strongest in early adulthood
very large cells produced by cell fusions
contain up to 300 nuclei
bones continue to grow and remodel themselves
amoeboid movement throughout life
wraps around small section of bone
bone growth in diameter occurs by combined action of
secretes enzyme to digest it
osteoblasts and osteoclasts
Bone Formation even after bone growth has stopped, osteoblasts and
st osteoclasts continue working
parts of skeleton begin to form in 1 few weeks of
development in adult these opposing processes balance each
other out so bone neither grows nor shrinks
begins in fetus as cartilage template
bone destruction is not always a pathological
Ossification = conversion of cartilage or other process:
connective tissueinto bone
a. bones constantly adapting to stresses
in longbones ossificaton begins 3rd month of reaction to mechanical stresses
development
tension regions + chg
compresed regions – chg
centers of ossification in longbones: affects PTH activity
begins in diaphysis strengthens weak areas
at birth additional centers in epiphyses b. old bone removed to reduce bulk
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Effects of Aging on Skeletal System
c. minerals are added or removed from reservoir
as Calcium is metabolized Skeletal Changes from Childhood to Adult:
99% of body’s Ca++ is in bone A. infancy & childhood
(1200-1400g vs 1.5g in blood)
two hormones involved - antagonists change size, proportion,
PTH growth in length is cartilage of epiphyseal disc
!stimulates bone destruction (osteoclasts) growing faster than ossification proceeds
Calcitonin growth hormone plays major role
!stimulates bone formation (osteoblasts) ! stimulates cartilage
Ca++ deficiency: thyroid hormone
severe neuromuscular problems
hyperexcitability ! proper proportions
loss of function
head becomes proportionately smaller
Ca++ excess: facial bones more prominent
thorax more elliptical
Calcium deposits in blood vessels, pelvis larger and wide
kidneys and soft organs legs proportionately longer
vertebral column develops two additional curves
(already had thoracic and pelvic curves)
cervical curve ~3mo; lifts head
lumber ~1 yr; standing, walking
B. Puberty
sex hormones (estrogen & testosterone) stimulate
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! bone become brittle
ossification
shaggy margins, spurs, joint problems
! epiphyseal closure
cartilage keeps growing: big ears
facial features develop rapidly
also produce masculinizing and feminizing features of
skeleton
male – deep and funnel shaped;
whole skeleton larger and heavier
female – shallow, broader and flaring
C. Adulthood:
Bone maintenance and remodeling
bone destruction is not always a pathological
process:
a. bones constantly adapting to stresses
b. old bone removed to reduce bulk
c. minerals are added or removed from
reservoir as calcium is metabolized
D. Old Age
reabsorption outweighs growth
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Disorders of Skeletal System
2. Vertebral curvature
1. Fractures normally spine has two “S” shaped curves
repairs more slowly than skin; up to 6 months provides flexibility and resilient support
a. clot (hematoma) formation several types including:
hours scoliosis – abnormal lateral curvature
broken blood vessels, damaged tissues, bone cells die may appear spontaneously
or be result of polio, rickets or TB
b. soft callus (fibrocartilage)
3. Osteoporosis
days
growth of new capillaries bones lose mass and become more brittle
disposal of dead tissue
group of diseases in which bone reabsorption
c. bony callus outpaces bone deposition
weeks affects entire skeleton but esp
spongy bone tissue grows around area and replaces spongy bone of vertebrae and neck of femur
fibrocartilage
join two pieces firmly together esp in post menopausal women
d. remodeling sex hormones
stim bone deposition,
months decrease osteoclast activity
dead portions of original area reabsorbed
compact bone replaces spongy bone menopause – sharp reduction in sex hormones
ends are remodeled to blend in
usually thickened area remains esp post menopausal women (esp caucasian women)
misset bones may heal crooked
but weight bearing bones usually reassume proper shape by 70 yrs the average white woman has lost 30% of her bone
elec current speeds calcification and repair mass (some up to 50%)
not as drastic in men
new synthetic materials may soon be useful in replacing missing bone loss begins ~60 yrs and seldom exceeds 25% loss
bone
also bone grafts smoking also reduces estrogen levels
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bony spurs may form as cartilage wears away !deform joint
low body fat reduces estrogen production by ovaries in young interfere with movement, pain
female runners and dancers
most serious consequence is pathologic fractures
6. Rheumatoid Disease
esp in hip, wrist and vertebral column
far more severe than OA
is an autoimmune attack against synovial membrane
also, as bones become less dense they compress like
inflammation of synovial membranes and degeneration of
marshmallows
cartilage
synovial membranes fill with abnormal tissue growth =
! results in kyphosis ! exaggerated thoracic curve
granulation tissue
(widow’s hump, dowager’s hump)
may erode articular cartilage, bones and ligaments
suggestions: mainly small joints of body; wrists, ankles
need good bone mass by 35 or 40 tends to flare up and subside periodically
plenty of weight bearing exercise, esp before menopause affects women far more than men
typically begins between age 30 – 40
good calcium uptake (850-1000 mg/d) early in life, esp 25-40
no cure, but can be slowed with steroids, cortisone, etc
fluoridated water helps harden bones
don’t smoke
hormone replacement therapy only slows loss, doesn’t replace 7. Osteomyelitis
lost bone
-No longer recommended, too dangerous any infection of bone, cartilage or periosteum
localized or general
4. Rickets usually bacterial
childhood disease: bowed legs, deformed pelvis, 8. Ruptured (herneated) disc
due to Vit D (or Ca++) deficiency during growing years
body unable to absorb calcium from intestine intervertebral discs pad vertebrae
reduces calcification – bones stay soft with age outer layer thins and cracks; inner layers less firm
extra pressure can cause rupture
5. Osteoarthritis = herneated disc: pain, numbness, partial paralysis
most common age change is degeneration of joints 9. Gout
=wear and tear arthritis
rarely occurs before age 40; affects 85% of those over 70 group of diseases characterized by elevated uric acid in blood
as joints age get gradual softening and loss of articular cartilage forms sodium urate crystals in synovial fluid causing severe pain
bone formation at margin of articular cartilage exacerbated by alcoholism
as cartilage becomes roughened by wear, joint movements may
be accompanied by crunching or cracking sounds (=crepitus)
affects especially fingers, intervertebral joints, hips and knees 10. Bursitis
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inflammation of bursal sacs around joints
fills with fluid
usually caused by blow or friction
=“housemaids knee”
=“water on the knee”
11. Tendonitis
inflammation, usually due to overuse
12. Achondroplastic Dwarfism
spontaneous mutation of genes, not necessarily from parents
long bones of limbs stop growing in childhood while growth of
other bones is not affected
! results in short stature but normal sized head and trunk
not same as pituitary dwarfism, only certain cartilage cells are
affected
13. Polydactyly & Syndactyly
too many or too few fingers and toes
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